Please download lab materials
lab02.zipfrom our QQ group if you don't have one.
In this lab, you have three tasks:
lab02.py, which is distributed as part of the lab materials in the code directory.Submission: As instructed above, you just need to submit your answer for problems described in section 4 to our OJ website. You may submit more than once before the deadline; only the final submission will be scored. See lab00 for more instructions on submitting assignments.
Readings: You might find the following references to the textbook useful:
Consult this section if you need a refresher on the material for this lab. It's okay to skip directly to the next section and refer back here should you get stuck.
Lambda expressions are expressions that evaluate to functions by specifying two things: the parameters and a return expression.
lambda <parameters>: <return expression>
While both lambda expressions and def statements create function objects, there are some notable differences. lambda expressions work like other expressions; much like a mathematical expression just evaluates to a number and does not alter the current environment, a lambda expression evaluates to a function without changing the current environment. Let's take a closer look.
| lambda | def | |
|---|---|---|
| Type | Expression that evaluates to a value | Statement that alters the environment |
| Result of execution | Creates an anonymous lambda function with no intrinsic name. | Creates a function with an intrinsic name and binds it to that name in the current environment. |
| Effect on the environment | Evaluating a lambda expression does not create or modify any variables. |
Executing a def statement both creates a new function object and binds it to a name in the current environment. |
| Usage | A lambda expression can be used anywhere that expects an expression, such as in an assignment statement or as the operator or operand to a call expression. |
After executing a def statement, the created function is bound to a name. You should use this name to refer to the function anywhere that expects an expression. |
# A lambda expression by itself does not alter
# the environment
lambda x: x * x
# We can assign lambda functions to a name
# with an assignment statement
square = lambda x: x * x
square(3)
# Lambda expressions can be used as an operator
# or operand
negate = lambda f, x: -f(x)
negate(lambda x: x * x, 3)
def square(x):
return x * x
# A function created by a def statement
# can be referred to by its intrinsic name
square(3)
Environment diagrams are one of the best learning tools for understanding lambda expressions and higher order functions because you're able to keep track of all the different names, function objects, and arguments to functions. We highly recommend drawing environment diagrams or using Python tutor if you get stuck doing the WWPD problems below. For examples of what environment diagrams should look like, try running some code in Python tutor. Here are the rules:
= sign.= doesn't already exist in the current frame, write it in. If it does, erase the current binding. Bind the value obtained in step 1 to this name.If there is more than one name/expression in the statement, evaluate all the expressions first from left to right before making any bindings.
Try to paste the following code in the Python tutor and understand each execution step. You can also click this link.
x = 10
y = x
x = 20
x, y = y + 1, x - 1
Try to paste the following code in the Python tutor and understand each execution step. You can also click this link.
def f(x):
return x + 1
def g(y):
return y - 1
def f(z):
return x * 2
Note: you do not have to go through this process for a built-in Python function like
maxor
Try to paste the following code in the Python tutor and understand each execution step. You can also click this link.
def f(a, b, c):
return a * (b + c)
def g(x):
return 3 * x
f(1 + 2, g(2), 6)
Note: As we saw in the
lambdaexpression section above,lambdafunctions have no intrinsic name. When drawinglambdafunctions in environment diagrams, they are labeled with the namelambdaor with the lowercase Greek letter λ. This can get confusing when there are multiple lambda functions in an environment diagram, so you can distinguish them by numbering them or by writing the line number on which they were defined.
This is the only step. We are including this section to emphasize the fact that the difference between lambda expressions and def statements is that lambda expressions do not create any new bindings in the environment.
Try to paste the following code in the Python tutor and understand each execution step. You can also click this link.
lambda x: x * x #no binding created
square = lambda x: x * x
square(4) #calling a lambda function
In this section, you need to think about what python would display if the code below were input to a python interpreter.
You don't have to submit your answers, which means the questions in this section don't count for your final score. However, they are great practice for future assignments, projects, and exams. Attempting these questions is valuable in helping cement your knowledge of course concepts.
To check the correctness of your answer, you can start a python interpreter, input the code into it, and compare the output displayed in the terminal with yours. It is ok for the interpreter to output nothing or raise an error.
>>> lambda x: x # A lambda expression with one parameter x
______
>>> a = lambda x: x # Assigning the lambda function to the name a
>>> a(5)
______
>>> (lambda: 3)() # Using a lambda expression as an operator in a call exp.
______
>>> b = lambda x: lambda: x # Lambdas can return other lambdas!
>>> c = b(88)
>>> c
______
>>> c()
______
>>> d = lambda f: f(4) # They can have functions as arguments as well.
>>> def square(x):
... return x * x
>>> d(square)
______
>>> x = None # remember to review the rules of WWPD given above!
>>> x
>>> lambda x: x
______
>>> z = 3
>>> e = lambda x: lambda y: lambda: x + y + z
>>> e(0)(1)()
______
>>> f = lambda z: x + z
>>> f(3)
______
>>> higher_order_lambda = lambda f: lambda x: f(x)
>>> g = lambda x: x * x
>>> higher_order_lambda(2)(g) # Which argument belongs to which function call?
______
>>> higher_order_lambda(g)(2)
______
>>> call_thrice = lambda f: lambda x: f(f(f(x)))
>>> call_thrice(lambda y: y + 1)(0)
______
>>> print_lambda = lambda z: print(z) # When is the return expression of a lambda expression executed?
>>> print_lambda
______
>>> one_thousand = print_lambda(1000)
______
>>> one_thousand
______
>>> def even(f):
... def odd(x):
... if x < 0:
... return f(-x)
... return f(x)
... return odd
>>> steven = lambda x: x
>>> stewart = even(steven)
>>> stewart
______
>>> stewart(61)
______
>>> stewart(-4)
______
>>> def cake():
... print('beets')
... def pie():
... print('sweets')
... return 'cake'
... return pie
>>> chocolate = cake()
______
>>> chocolate
______
>>> chocolate()
______
>>> more_chocolate, more_cake = chocolate(), cake
______
>>> more_chocolate
______
>>> def snake(x, y):
... if cake == more_cake:
... return chocolate
... else:
... return x + y
>>> snake(10, 20)
______
>>> snake(10, 20)()
______
>>> cake = 'cake'
>>> snake(10, 20)
______
In this section, you are required to complete the problems below and submit your code to Contest lab02 in our OJ website as instructed in lab00 to get your answer scored.
We can transform multiple-argument functions into a chain of single-argument, higher order functions by taking advantage of lambda expressions. This is useful when dealing with functions that take only single-argument functions. We will see some examples of these later on.
Write a function lambda_curry2 that will curry any two argument function using lambdas. See the doctest or refer to Section 1.6.6 in the textbook if you're not sure what this means.
Your solution to this problem should fit entirely on the return line. You can try writing it first without this restriction, but rewrite it after in one line to test your understanding of this topic.
def lambda_curry2(func):
"""
Returns a Curried version of a two-argument function FUNC.
>>> from operator import add, mul, mod
>>> curried_add = lambda_curry2(add)
>>> add_three = curried_add(3)
>>> add_three(5)
8
>>> curried_mul = lambda_curry2(mul)
>>> mul_5 = curried_mul(5)
>>> mul_5(42)
210
>>> lambda_curry2(mod)(123)(10)
3
"""
"*** YOUR CODE HERE ***"
return ______
Consider the following implementations of count_factors and count_primes:
def count_factors(n):
"""Return the number of positive factors that n has.
>>> count_factors(6)
4 # 1, 2, 3, 6
>>> count_factors(4)
3 # 1, 2, 4
"""
i, count = 1, 0
while i <= n:
if n % i == 0:
count += 1
i += 1
return count
def count_primes(n):
"""Return the number of prime numbers up to and including n.
>>> count_primes(6)
3 # 2, 3, 5
>>> count_primes(13)
6 # 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13
"""
i, count = 1, 0
while i <= n:
if is_prime(i):
count += 1
i += 1
return count
def is_prime(n):
return count_factors(n) == 2 # only factors are 1 and n
The implementations look quite similar! Generalize this logic by writing a function count_cond, which takes in a two-argument predicate function condition(n, i). count_cond returns a one-argument function that takes in n, which counts all the numbers from 1 to n that satisfy condition when called.
def count_cond(condition):
"""Returns a function with one parameter N that counts all the numbers from
1 to N that satisfy the two-argument predicate function Condition, where
the first argument for Condition is N and the second argument is the
number from 1 to N.
>>> count_factors = count_cond(lambda n, i: n % i == 0)
>>> count_factors(2) # 1, 2
2
>>> count_factors(4) # 1, 2, 4
3
>>> count_factors(12) # 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
6
>>> is_prime = lambda n, i: count_factors(i) == 2
>>> count_primes = count_cond(is_prime)
>>> count_primes(2) # 2
1
>>> count_primes(3) # 2, 3
2
>>> count_primes(4) # 2, 3
2
>>> count_primes(5) # 2, 3, 5
3
>>> count_primes(20) # 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19
8
"""
"*** YOUR CODE HERE ***"
Write a function that takes in two single-argument functions, f and g, and returns another function that has a single parameter x. The returned function should return True if f(g(x)) is equal to g(f(x)). You can assume the output of g(x) is a valid input for f and vice versa. You may use the compose1 function defined below.
def compose1(f, g):
"""Return the composition function which given x, computes f(g(x)).
>>> add_one = lambda x: x + 1 # adds one to x
>>> square = lambda x: x**2
>>> a1 = compose1(square, add_one) # (x + 1)^2
>>> a1(4)
25
>>> mul_three = lambda x: x * 3 # multiplies 3 to x
>>> a2 = compose1(mul_three, a1) # ((x + 1)^2) * 3
>>> a2(4)
75
>>> a2(5)
108
"""
return lambda x: f(g(x))
def composite_identity(f, g):
"""
Return a function with one parameter x that returns True if f(g(x)) is
equal to g(f(x)). You can assume the result of g(x) is a valid input for f
and vice versa.
>>> add_one = lambda x: x + 1 # adds one to x
>>> square = lambda x: x**2
>>> b1 = composite_identity(square, add_one)
>>> b1(0) # (0 + 1)^2 == 0^2 + 1
True
>>> b1(4) # (4 + 1)^2 != 4^2 + 1
False
"""
"*** YOUR CODE HERE ***"
Define a function cycle that takes in three functions f1, f2, f3, as arguments. cycle will return another function that should take in an integer argument n and return another function. That final function should take in an argument x and cycle through applying f1, f2, and f3 to x, depending on what n was. Here's what the final function should do to x for a few values of n:
n = 0, return xn = 1, apply f1 to x, or return f1(x)n = 2, apply f1 to x, and then f2 to the result of that, or return f2(f1(x))n = 3, apply f1 to x, f2 to the result of applying f1, and then f3 to the result of applying f2, or f3(f2(f1(x)))n = 4, start the cycle again applying f1, then f2, then f3, then f1 again, or f1(f3(f2(f1(x))))Hint: most of the work goes inside the most nested function.
def cycle(f1, f2, f3):
"""Returns a function that is itself a higher-order function.
>>> def add1(x):
... return x + 1
>>> def times2(x):
... return x * 2
>>> def add3(x):
... return x + 3
>>> my_cycle = cycle(add1, times2, add3)
>>> identity = my_cycle(0)
>>> identity(5)
5
>>> add_one_then_double = my_cycle(2)
>>> add_one_then_double(1)
4
>>> do_all_functions = my_cycle(3)
>>> do_all_functions(2)
9
>>> do_more_than_a_cycle = my_cycle(4)
>>> do_more_than_a_cycle(2)
10
>>> do_two_cycles = my_cycle(6)
>>> do_two_cycles(1)
19
"""
"*** YOUR CODE HERE ***"
You don't have to submit your answers to these questions but we still encourage you to do them on paper. Similar problems will appear on the exam.
Draw the environment diagram for the following code:
n = 9
def make_adder(n):
return lambda k: k + n
add_ten = make_adder(n+1)
result = add_ten(n)
There are 3 frames total (including the Global frame). In addition, consider the following questions:
add_ten points to a function object. What is the intrinsic name of that function object, and what frame is its parent?f2, what name is the frame labeled with (add_ten or λ)? Which frame is the parent of f2?result bound to in the Global frame?You can try out the environment diagram at tutor.cs61a.org. To see the environment diagram for this question, click here.
add_ten points to is λ (specifically, the lambda whose parameter is k). The parent frame of this lambda is f1.f2 is labeled with the name λ the parent frame of f2 is f1, since that is where λ is defined.result is bound to 19.Try drawing an environment diagram for the following code and predict what Python will output.
>>> a = lambda x: x * 2 + 1
>>> def b(b, x):
... return b(x + a(x))
>>> x = 3
>>> b(a, x)
______